The Medieval Education System

It seems evident that due to it's limited access via social castes as well as it's provincial ideology once attained, education before the 1800's played a limited role in the history of Education. From the rhetoric-based Greek age of Plato and Aristotle to colonial America, education was mostly an elitist institution that was inaccessible to most and, if one was so privileged as to attain it, full of hackneyed, non-progressive ritual; thus making its' impact evident mostly in history textbooks. In Greek times it is clear that true education was limited those with much free time and/or the means to pay for private tutors. Due to this, the vast majority of those who were educated were among the small upper class. Elitist â€Å"education† was largely based on the ability to speak and persuade; a tool only truly necessary to those who were socially powerful. The later Roman education system was, although theoretically more accessible due to more schools, very similar to that of the Greeks. Those who were â€Å"truly educated† were well versed in Latin and were able to speak efficiently. However, when the Roman power system shifted from political to military, the valued vocation changed in correlation with the valued focus of education. The role of the orator diminished as the role of the soldier increased. In the Greco-Roman times education as an institution was geared to those with time and money, therefore few were able to partake. Clearly if only a small percentage of the populace, in any culture or time-period, has access to information, the impact of that information on society and future generations, as a whole, will be limited. The medieval education systems' institutions have impacted Education comparably to those of the Greco-Roman period; which isn't saying much. This is due, once again, to the grossly exagerated social caste system that existed during this period. The immense majority of the population had no time for education their lives were consumed by a constant struggle to survive. With all wealth concentrated on the minute land owning populace as well as the Church, education for most was the passing down of a trade from generation to generation as well as basic communication skills. The only â€Å"institutions† were those that were established by, or in order to promote, the good of the Church. Parish, monastic, chantry, and cathedral schools were the extent of medieval education. With all four of these types of schools contributing to one common it is easy to see that the influence of education was limited. Although the ideas taught during the medieval period were, for the most part, rehashed tradition fueled by religious propagandists, highlights such as studium generale and universitas planted seeds for future growth. Once again, however, due to the exclusiveness of educational opportunities concentrated on those with status, power and, money, the impact on Education that the middle ages had was limited. In contrast to its' insular curriculum of the Greco-Roman period and its' monopolization by the church during the medieval period, education during the renaissance became â€Å"enlightened. † As religion was called into question, and the middle class began developing, the educational stagnation of the middle ages also evolved.

French Revolution

At the end of Frances revolution in 1799, the French citizens got what they wanted. Starting with the storming of the Bastille, the French revolution lasted three years. With the revolution finally coming to an end, the French people got a new leader that they long awaited, a new government and constitution, and all together a whole different country. While at the time, people were arguing whether or not the revolution was a necessary event. A little bit more than two hundred years later, we now know that it was a necessary event.The French revolution was a necessary event, because there was widespread hunger that needed to be changed, they got rid of a king and queen that was disloyal to their country, and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen was written. During and before the French Revolution, hunger was everywhere. In Charles Dickens’ A Tale of Two Cities, Dickens shows how bad the situation in France was by saying â€Å"†¦ was the sigh, Hunger. IT was prevalent everywhere.Hunger was pushed out of the tall houses, in the wretched clothing that hung upon poles and lines; Hunger was patched into them with straw and rag and wood and paper; Hunger was repeated in every fragment of the small modicum of firewood that the man sawed off; Hunger stared to eat. Hunger was the inscription on the baker’s shelves, written in every small loaf of his scanty stock of bad bread; at the sausage-shop, in every dead-dog preparation that was offered for sale.Hunger rattled its dry bones among the roasting chestnuts in the turned cylinder; Hunger was shred into atomics in every farthing porringer of husky chips of potato, fried with some reluctant drops of oil (Dickens 34, source D). † Also, with the prices of bread rising, most people relied on what they can grow; they sometimes even ate grass, to keep them alive. With a King and Queen that only cared about themselves, there is no doubt that hunger is the first reason why the French Revolution was a necessary event.Along with the hunger that made the French Revolution necessary, The Declaration of The Rights of Man and of The Citizen also made it a necessary event. It was a necessary event, because it was saying that they wanted a new government and wanted to get rid of the current government. It also gave citizens many new rights, including: â€Å"1. Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be founded only upon the general good. 2. The aim of all political association is the preservation of the natural and imprescriptible rights of man.These rights are liberty, security, and resistance to oppression. (source A). † Those are only two of the total seventeen rights. This is a good thing that came out of the revolution, and the second reason why it was a necessary event. With all of the hunger and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen making the French revolution a necessary event, the overthrow of the King and Queen also made it necessary. With the young King and Queen barely 20 years old, it was almost guaranteed that they didn’t know how to run a country.This excerpt from a handout about Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette, called â€Å"The Ancien Regime,† shows how little the King was prepared to run the country. â€Å"Louis XVI, a member of the Bourbon family, was neither intelligent, hardworking, nor firm of purpose (Lacey, source G). It was only an amount of time when they finally executed King Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette. The killing of the King and Queen is the last reason why the French Revolution was a necessary event.Starting with the storming of the Bastille, the French Revolution lasted about ten years. During this period, France got a new leader, government, and a whole new country. While many people would argue that was not a necessary event, we now know that is was, because there was a widespread hunger that needed to be put to an end, the Declaration of the Rights of the Man and of the Citizen was written, and they got rid a King and Queen that cared only about themselves.The pros of the French revolution outweigh the cons, making the French Revolution a necessary event. Works Cited â€Å"Declaration of the Rights of Man-1789. † The Avalon Project. 2008 Lillian Goldman Law Library. 22 July 2009. Web. Dickens, Charles. A Tale of Two Cities New York: Signet Classic, 2007. Print. Lacey, Robert, ed. â€Å"The Ancien Regime† The French Revolution Jackdaw Portfolio No. 147 Amawalk, NY: Jackdaw Publication, 1976. Print.

Petro-Canada's Total Compensation Strategy and Program Research Paper - 3

Petro-Canada's Total Compensation Strategy and Program - Research Paper Example This paper illustrates that Petro-Canada is a public organization producing oil and gas organization and taking part in all of the upstream and downstream operations. The company is known for exploring for and producing energy not only locally but also internationally. It has as many as 1,323 retail outlets which supply petroleum products and services across the nation. Headquarter of the company is located at the in downtown Calgary in Alberta. In the year 2008, the total revenue of the company was $27,785,000, while its employee strength was 6,088. The oil and gas industry in Canada happens to be highly competitive having strong competitors like Encana etc. The objective to increase strength and emerge as a larger oil and gas company the company decided to merge with Suncor in the year 2009. However, now it operates as a subsidiary of the parent company, Suncor Energy. The cash compensation received by an Applications analyst I in Petro-Canada is CDN$75,000-85,000 (Tang, 2010). Thi s is a much higher amount as compared to the average market rate which is $50,795. Thus it can be said that the company has a lead policy in this regard. Apart from having an attractive salary the company also has a scheme of sharing profits with employees which happens at the end of each fiscal year. The amount of the profits shared with the workers depends on the performance of the company at that financial year. As per the rules of the company an Application Analyst I is able to earn an amount of 10% of his base pay as profit sharing. In this way, an employee could earn as high as 15% to 20% when the company has a successful performance in a year.

Law and Ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Law and Ethics - Essay Example It is pertinent to note here that teachers are employed under a written contract and onus comes on board to prove that teacher has misbehaved or violated any condition of employment. The Fair Dismissal Act enlists eight causes under which dismissal of the teacher can be acted upon and the board must ensure that charges framed against the teacher fit into one of the eight grounds outlined in the act for a successful termination. The superintendent must forward a written notice to the teacher about their intention of dismissal along with a copy of the said Act. The employee must be provided with all information pertaining to their rights to assure him or her that proper procedure is being followed upon. The superintendent will also attach copies of OCGA 20-2-940 through 20-2-947, and 20-2-211(b) along with the notice. The teacher has full right to ask for the reasons of dismissal and the superintendent is obligated to reply within 14 days of this request. If the superintendent fails to reply within stipulated time period, the teacher’s contract will get renewed automatically. The superintendent needs to ensure that Professional Development Plan is in place. A detailed documentation process against the teacher is a must before taking any concrete action. The principal will need to present all papers that include a complaint from the teachers departmental chair exposing teachers behavior. The principal will also need to present those papers from the teachers file that reveals that required attempts have been made to correct the teachers behavior. The principal will establish that the teacher has been placed on a Professional Development Plan before asking for his or her dismissal. It becomes imperative on part of the principal that all necessary papers and documentation are provided to the board beforehand otherwise termination request cannot go through. 5. What is the difference between an â€Å"at will† employee

The Strategic Management of Healthcare Organizations Assignment

The Strategic Management of Healthcare Organizations - Assignment Example The researcher states that Pitney Bowes believed that when the employees are healthy, there will be less time spent outside work when the employee is out there looking for health care or attending to doctor appointments. Because of this realization, it decided to increase the number of funds that are allocated for the employee healthcare management with the aim of reducing the overall overhead cost that is incurred when the employee is away from work due to health issues. At Pitney Bowes, the employee health management strategy is basically made up of four components. The first component is the heavy investment in the employee health management staff. The firm has spent a fortune in the employee management staff. The second component is the use of data to shapes its plan, benefits, and programs. The organization relies on healthcare data to be able to come up with plans, benefits, and programs which will effectively serve the intended purpose. The third component is the focus on prev entive care. Preventing the health-related issues is cheaper than curing the conditions. The firm strives to prevent the conditions before they occur. The fourth and final component of this strategy is offering choices and flexibility. This has gone a long way in ensuring the intended goals of the plans are achieved. The management at Pitney Bowes has taken an aggressive approach when it comes to health management. The main objective has been the reduction of cost while at the same time improving outcomes. Data over the years appears to show the effectiveness of the strategy that has been used by this firm. It has enabled them to reduce the cost associated with treating employees and also eliminating expenses that are incurred due to absenteeism from work. This has therefore positively added value to the firm. As indicated earlier, the health plan selection and plan design are based on four main components which are heavy investment in staff, focus on preventive care, use of data to influence design and flexibility. Pitney Bowes believes that the upfront investment in the analysis of the plan design is much more offset by the overall healthcare cost. It utilizes large health employee management staff coupled with a data-driven approach to effectively offering the required and effective health management, design plan.

Portfolio Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Portfolio Analysis - Essay Example The indifference curve can be used to reflect investor attitude or risk by refloating an investor’s preference. The plot of many indifference curves shows the different options that an investor would take. However, from the indifference map, the best option is to take the option that is highest that any other indifference curve. b. Selection of a suitable portfolio Indifference curves are not just used to display the risk aversion factors of an investor; in fact, the indifference curve can be used to select a suitable portfolio in terms of risk and return (Yin and Zhou, 2004). As already stated, the indifference curve is a plot of the risk and return preferences of an investor, therefore, to select the most suitable portfolio, an investor can utilize the mean-variance theory. The mean-variance theory of portfolio selection is derived from the indifference curve, where the map of the different indifference curves for an investor is plotted together (Maharakkhaka, 2011). From th e plot of the indifference curves, the transitive preferences of an investor can be determined, which refers to the selection of the best preference curve as chosen by an investor. From an analysis of the transitive preferences, it is evident that the highest preference curve is the one that should be selected by the investor. From the indifference curve, the investor can determine the highest possible indifference curve, which, combined with the other indifference curves, gives the mean-variance portfolio or the most efficient portfolio in an investment. 2. Correlation and Co-variance a. Correlation and Co-variance The relationship between two variables can be measured or determined in different ways, but the commonest way is the determination of the correlation and covariance of the two variables. A number of variables are sometimes related in some way or another, either the occurrence of one variable affects the occurrence of the other variable, or the does not affect the working of the other variable. The covariance refers to the type of relationship that two variables have, meaning that it shows whether two variables have a positive or negative relationship. In this case, a positive relationship refers to the fact that one variable moves in the same direction as the other variable. Conversely, the correlation between two variables incorporates another dimension, the extent to which two variables are related. In addition to the covariance angle of determining whether variables are positively or inversely related, the correlation also shows the extent to which the variables are inversely or positively related. b. Covariance, Correlation, and Portfolio risk As already stated, the correlation between two variables is determined by the movement of one variable in relation to the movement of the other variable. In the investment market, diversification is a good practice, since it ensures that an investor does not lose an investment in case of a catastrophe or loss in market value. A positive correlation between assets means that one asset will move in the exact same way as another asset. In investment, stocks with low or negative correlation are used to reduce portfolio risk since when one asset falls; the other asset

Fairy tales Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Fairy tales - Essay Example Children find such tales so interesting because some of the fairy tales touch on their every day experience. Parents should expose their children to some of the fairy tales when they turn five. Children will concentrate more in listening to fairy tales when relaxing, especially when they are about to retire to bed. Fairy tales are not just associated with children. They are very much important to teens. They are important to teens because they build on their emotional resilience. Parents should show their responsibility in taking care of the family by showing the teens about the reality of life. This will make them know and appreciate that problems do not come to people because they are bad, but rather problems are faced by people in order to make them stronger and to be able to survive in any environment no matter how complicated it is. There are a lot of lessons we can learn from fairy tales. Some of them range from the society’s perception of the role of a girl child to chi ld trafficking. In most societies, including China’s, boys have been traditionally valued than girls. You find boys given the best kind of education, given opportunity in places of work and at the same time given an opportunity to marry any girl he wishes, sometimes with the help of the parents. This is not only common in China but also other nations though the situation is now changing. This paper therefore aims at drawing illustrations based on the issues that affect children and some of the ways in which parents and relatives have contributed to such problems. Most of the illustrations will however be drawn from children fairy tales like Disneyland for clarifications. Girls lack freedom of choice. This is because they are always viewed as weaker sex. In as much as many people could hold similar opinion about girls, I tend to wonder the kind of criterion such people have always used to measure weaknesses of girls. Perhaps one of the reasons for holding such belief is the fa ct that boys tend to be a little bit brave as compared to girls. Boys’ brevity can be seen in the way they handle situations, friends and enemies, animals, scary movies and tales. Some girls, on the other hand, are more afraid of touching animals and certain insects; they also fear scary movies like horrors. However much people feel that girls are naturally born weaker sex and that they are always cowards, this again should not be true with all girls; certain girls are braver just like there are certain boys who are cowards. The ability to be brave or cowardice depends on certain factors, some of them being entirely dependent on genes. Generalizing that all girls are cowards or all boys should be brave is a fact that does not hold water. Besides, should it be the reason why most societies do not have respect for girl child? If it is so then it is regrettable because creation is an occurrence which is beyond human understanding. Certain tales teach about the power of confidenc e. A good example is (Cinderella) the girl who falls in love with a prince and despite her poor background, breaks all odds to marry the handsome prince. This is done against the wishes of many including the step sister. The view that girls are inferior is something that even women appreciate. They are not given a chance to choose what they feel is best for them. In Cinderella, Cinderella’s step sister falls in love with a mere baker, a love triangle that later leads to marriage. Cinderella’

Cases Of Plagiarism And Its Consequences Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Cases Of Plagiarism And Its Consequences - Essay Example Also, it was detected that only the last edition of her book contained a thanksgiving paragraph for Taggart’s in the preface although nothing was written about him in the preface of the first edition. Goodwin had been ousted from the university but the matter was settled very quietly between Goodwin and Taggart with the latter taking no strict action against the accused (Crader). There had been a similar case of plagiarism two years back where Stephen Ambrose, a historian was accused of copying in his book â€Å"The Wild Blue†. He had copied innumerable lines including some entire texts from Thomas Childers â€Å"Wings of Morning†. Some important phrases from Childers book like ‘glittering like mica’ and ‘up, up, up’ has been repeated word by word in â€Å"The Wild Blue† and not been put in quotation marks. Also, he has not done proper referencing and mentioned Childers only in bibliography and footnotes. However, Ambrose escaped the accusation unscathed as Guilders didn’t take any action against him for plagiarism (Barnes). The consequence of plagiarism can be judged only on the basis that whether it was intended or unintended. The above articles indicate that the works done by Ambrose and Goodwin revealed intended plagiarism since the subjects were similar to the books they plagiarized. However, no action was taken against them and such a result sounds unfair as strict actions should be taken against such people. Although Goodwin was ousted from her University, she received several accolades for her work later on from the same university. So it can be said that justice had not been done and created a wrong example for students and authors alike.

People at Work Essay Example for Free

People at Work Essay There are many styles of management that produces different kinds of results. If not done right, it would either be too much or too little, bringing out effects such as being less creative, however efficient or being more creative but less efficient. Wanting to bring out the best of our employees, innovation in management tends to analyze workforce who are also more adept to technical innovations and easy practical solutions. In a generation with ever changing attitudes who are attuned to the trends of society, it is also a must that old management styles are being updated and innovated. Philips Cooke (2006) described innovation in its simplest form as the transformation of new creative ideas into new goods and services. It is not only focused on products and new technological gadgets, innovation are also most effective when applied to management. With innovative management applied in a company, results can be seen in effectiveness, production, excellence, spirited positioning, and market share. This is why, in management innovation, Emotional Intelligence or Emotional Quotient (EQ) has now become a very critical factor in the workplace and top management today because more than just smart heads and high IQ people, companies and businesses today takes more than just desks, ledgers, machines and materials to make a business work. More than anything else, businesses need people. People are needed to make a company grow, people who are working together, not necessarily on the same department or in the same building, but people pulling together so that the organization operates efficiently and can continue running the business. But sometimes, people are being funny or uncooperative. They do not pull or group together, and sometimes fail to manage their full share of load. Thus, the question now is, how will we know that our managers possessed the ability of being a leader? Does he know how to properly handle people? Does he know how to develop new ideas and implement it effectively? How will we know in the first place that we have the manager we are looking for, or how can we develop such? Literature Review Globalization had brought out a steep competition for the market of goods and services everyday and it is management innovation that brings forth key factors for company’s future survival. (Cooke. P, 2006) According to Kira Fabrizio (2006), the world is currently entirely driven by technology. Additionally business existence routines are transforming rapidly. All the same, proper innovation management skills will always guarantee future survival of any given organization for a company or a firm cannot operate smoothly if not managed properly. Due to tough competition, companies always aim to satisfy customers by producing quality products and services. Chesbrough (2006), Simcoe. T, (2006) and Allen, L. D. Evans. (1997) argued that for an innovation to be a success, correct discharge of the creative ideas already born is critical in any organization. As a matter of fact the creativity emanating from an employee and/or from a team of employees forms the basis for innovation. A successful innovation can not be attained by the Production of creative ideas alone but by correct implementation of those creative ideas to bring about new or improved product and/or service within the organization. For creative ideas to be generated there must be a room to try out the ideas emanating from the creative employees. This is usually achieved in a loose and flexible environment. Innovative work does not well with rules used for routine handling of an organization however these rules are supported by theory and practice. The efficiency of day to day within an organization requires stable routine (Sunbo F. Gallouj, 2000). This is usually achieved in a stable controlled environment. The trick is to have a management that balances the factors that allow creativity while at the same time promoting effective operations of the organization (Utterback, M. 1994). Innovation normally occurs through a management system that allows for combination of many diverse players within any particular organization. (West, J, 2006). The player may include among others managers, supervisors, technicians, employees, and consultants. Research on social networks involved in the development of innovation process points out that successful innovation normally occurs near or at the primary interface of an organization and manufacturer. With these, O’Connor (2006) said that innovation process requires the inputs of all personnel of a particular company that is from the top executives to subordinate staffs. It may also require the expertise of a consultant who is normally outsourced. Existing Management Innovations Innovative approaches are assessed based on its impact upon its profitability. Through implementing strategic management approaches in ones company, the need for customer satisfaction will be met, not only locally but world wide. Currently, there are many innovative approaches to management, which needs top management support to be implemented properly. The new ISO 9000:2000 standards promote the adoption of a process approach when devising, implementing and improving a quality management system (QMS). PCL Petts Consulting Ltd) This model of a quality management system approach acknowledge the facts that quality results are achieved by producing a company manual, complete with work procedures and work instructions, proper recording and keeping of quality records and tracking of inputs and outputs. The HACCP (Hazard Analysis of Critical Control Points) System is a systematic approach to the identification, assessment of risk and severity, and control of biological, chemical and physical hazards associated with a particular food production process or practice. When speaking of HACCP, it is always associated with food safety. By using and by being certified with this system, the customers of the company are always assured of the safe processing of food. CSR (Corporate Social Responsibility) is about how companies manage the business processes to produce an overall positive impact on society. (Baker, 2006) It is the balance between the companies performance in terms of products and services to satisfy its market, on how the company manage ,treats and train its workers, on how the company shows its concern to its environment and on how it shows concern to the surrounding community. Low Morale due to Ineffective Management These are few of management innovations that are putting a company ahead of others. Today, companies encountered dilemmas such that too much management which ceased to innovate, thus, bringing out to little or no impact or improvements to a company at all. The problem here is that, businesses need more efficient people, have an environment to let innovative people flourish, however, it wont be effective if management does not have the skills and abilities to develop new ideas effectively. Thus, the question now is, how will we know that our managers possessed the ability of being a leader? Does he know how to properly handle people? Does he know how to develop new ideas and implement it effectively? How will we know in the first place that we have the manager we are looking for, or how can we develop such? The management should be flexible enough to absorb the views of all stakeholders. Management is not always willing to accept new ideas. Most managers always want to remain in a comfortable zone. Too much management, which is commonly found in large organization, should understand innovative people. Modern executives’ definition of efficiency is operating business which can supply their customers with better products or services at lowered cost. Modern executives are forever asking questions which is more concerned in productivity and efficiency rather than employees self regard and self esteem. â€Å"How are we doing? †, â€Å"Is production going up? †, â€Å"Sales up? †, â€Å"Costs going down? † are just few of executives questions about efficiency clearly showing the classic ways of hierarchal management systems. This results to low self-esteem which has a very strong relationship with morale. The loss of self-confidence or a feeling of discouragement may also be caused by frustration, which in turn causes mental efficiency and creativity to be lowered. This situation was experienced by Oracle. Ashby and Miles (2002) cited Oracle who was facing crisis in June 1992. Its culture â€Å"win at any cost, the end always justify the means† caused low morale and its effects on day-to-day operations was out of control since employees no longer pay attention to rules either internally or with customers. Applying EQ for Effective Management Innovations Change of management structure especially for large businesses to accommodate innovation is very critical for an organization to remain competitive (Tidd, J et al 1997). The management system in place should be flexible enough to create room for creative ideas. The management should easily adapt to changes brought about by trends in technologies and human issues. The organization needs to be loose and flexible enough to allow room for creative new ideas. A tight management system hinders creativity. Management should also motivate employees by rewarding not only success but also failure. This is because you cannot produce good ideas without bad ones (Maguire, 1994). Further for innovation to be successful there is a need for key personnel who are primarily concerned with the development of new product or services. The complexity of the procedures and levels involved in the production of a new product can impact negatively on the success of an innovation. (Fabrizio. K, 2006) For the success of an innovation the key is to delegate a few personnel on that activity, as too many people are less innovative compared to a few people. The virtuous circle can also impact negatively on the development of an innovation. It follows the following steps such as organization reputation for innovation, attraction of creative people, organizational need for creativity and innovation, development of innovation product, willingness within the organization to accept new ideas, motivation of people within organization to reduce frustration, high morale and protection of creative people (Henry et al: 1991). This means that if one the above listed steps is missed then innovation would not be established. So if we ask, why is there a need to apply Emotional Intelligence (EQ) in management innovations? This is because Emotional Intelligence (EQ) is now more important and useful especially in businesses. It tends to analyze and identify why people do what they do, think as they do and think as they do; with their abilities, motives, disappointments, ambitions, queer streaks. The successful business person is almost always efficiency minded through and through whether he is the boss or not. He keeps a close eye on the efficiency, and the personal efficiency of those working with him. According to Herrera (2006) IQ is quickly losing ground to EQ when it comes to predicting success. Moreover, supervisors and executives are generally rated on still more EQ qualities such as winning cooperation, handling people, suitable use of language and accepting suggestions and criticisms. This proves that the higher the position you can attain the higher EQ qualities, tests and evaluation that you have passed. An employee with more promotional possibilities shows high EQ for higher executives take on more social responsibilities at each step on the way up. According to Bradberry, T. Greaves, J. (2005a), 16 hours of work can make a person feel 465 emotions in a day with (2005b) 90% top performers tested to have high EQ and only 20% high EQ individuals being rated as low performers. Rather than IQ, companies and corporations now opt for high EQ individuals to work for them. This is because, high EQ employees are more productive, and have great job performance and good leaders. High EQ employees and leaders are worker-centered which had higher producing work groups. And as we all know, companies aims for high productions at low cost and less turnovers. Conclusion Management systems have a significant effect on the innovation process. A tight management system normally hinders creativity because it does not allow employees to express and generate innovative ideas. All the same for small organizations suppressed management approaches can increase abilities to innovate through less formal management structures facilitating rapid decision-making, which is facilitated by having to communicate the changes to members of the organization. For innovation process to be a success there should be a â€Å"slack† element in the management Structure. To balance between effective running of an organization and creativity the management should know what is best for routine work and what is best for innovative work. And with this, management innovation and creativity is best improved by applying EQ tools. Today, EQ ratings are almost always taken with high importance in a company. During a companys periodic reviews of individual efficiency, the boss, supervisor or head of the company watch work ways and attitudes of employees. According to Laird and Laird (1979) employees are rated according to desirable qualities or social characteristics such as cooperation, communication and appearance. This shows that individual efficiency is not based on high IQ but rather based on the qualities of high EQ. Production is also influenced by the friendly interaction of members of a work group. An employee’s level of EQ is tied in with friendliness because it shapes its interaction of people towards each other. High EQ of employees encourage warm and friendly atmosphere in the work place. On the other hand, employees with low EQ will be cold and aloof towards its co-workers. This will hinder the productivity of a worker with low EQ and increase the rate of absenteeism, thus, absenteeism is an outcome of an employee with low EQ. With this, managers will think that unnecessary absence from work shows irresponsibility. The human emotions shape the interactions of people to each other. With the types of people in one company, considering warm or friendly and cold or aloof, those employees with high EQ will stand out and be more productive than the others.

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Network Media Information Technology Essay

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Network Media Information Technology Essay Im a student of IADCS accessed by NCC Education at Myanma Computer Company in Yangon. Ive to study four core subjects and four elective subjects. In Enterprise Networking Assignment, we have to do handing over and sit exam to achieve that diploma. This assignment is intended to develop some of the heart features of the network and communication to point up the theoretical and practical understanding of the tools and techniques connected with enterprise networking. The tasks in this assignment can be more explored in categorize to acquire advantage of the additional sophisticated features of the network such as telephone system, two-way communications and network topologies. Acknowledgement Firstly I would similar to be grateful NCC Education for improving computer knowledge by preparing this assignment. Thanks also to my lecturer, U AUNG ZAW MYINT for his excellent management in a practiced effect. And also, special gratitude to my colleagues with their support made this assignment successfully. Finally, I wish to widen a deepest thanks to my parents who confident me to come to an end this assignment effectively. Task 1 How the topologies oerate In networking terms, topology refers not only to the physical layout of its computers, cables, and other resources, but also to how those components communicate with each other. A networks topology has a significant effect on its performance and growth potential. There is another terms that fit into topology scheme are Ethernet and token ring, these are sometimes referred to as LAN topologies. The media access method Ethernet uses in a shared-media environment (a logical bus). Token ring networks have a physical star topology but function as a logical ring. All network designs today are based on three simple physical topologies: bus, ring, and star. Bus network topology consists of a series of computers connected along a single cable segment. If this cable fails, the entire network crashes. Fig 1-1 Bus Network Topology Computers connected to form a loop create a ring topology network. A typical single-ring network fail if one computer in the ring fails, but a dual-ring network can operate around any such failure. Fig 1-2 Ring Network Topology A star network topology describes computers connected by cable segments to a central connection point (hub). Star topology doesnt specify how signals should travel from computer to computer, only that cables connect computers to a central device. Fig 1-3 Star Network topology Advantages and disadvantages of network media Media Types Advantages Disadvantages UTP (Twisted pair cable) least expensive, easy to install, widely available and widely use can over only a limited distance, susceptible to interference STP (Twisted pair cable) reduced crosstalk, limit the effects of external interference more resistant to EMI than Thinnet or UTP more expensive than UTP difficult to work with, can over only a limited distance, more fragile than UTP cables Coaxial Cable less susceptible to EMI interference than other types of copper media Less bandwidth than fiber Installation expenses are lofty, Difficult to work with, is not supported for some network standards (eg. Token ring), more susceptible than fiber optic cable Fiber- optic cable is not susceptible to EMI resistant to interference as any media can get, can transmit through longer distance The most expensive form of cabling, expensive to install , difficult to terminate Recommendation I want to recommend setting star network and twisted pair cable (UTP) for the following reasons. Star topology is the relative ease of troubleshooting because all computers connect at a central location; an administrator can quickly and easily isolate network problems involving a single device or cable segment without affecting other devices. Twisted pair (UTP) cable is the common use for star network topology. In UTP cabling, category 5 (cat5), category 5e (cat 5e), category 6 (cat 6) are by far the most popular types. UTP is particularly prone to crosstalk. It is used for telephone system and two-way communication. UTP is common in most office buildings and other work environments. Task 2 Task-2 Internet services The internet services provide for Communication, Information and File transmission all around the world. The following appliance are the most commonly use for internet services. Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) -responsible for transferring e-mail. File Transfer Protocol (FTP) -use for file transfer and manipulation services Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) -use to transfer Web pages from a Web server to a Web browser. Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS)- use to access linked documents on the World Wide Web that are located on a secure server. Post Office Protocol (POP3): specifies how e-mail clients can identify itself to the server and request that mail messages be made available to the user. Connection speeds The connection speeds that are suitable for the above services are as follows: Services Speeds Information 100 Kbps Communication 28 Kbps(mail) Video conferencing just 384 Kbps File transmission over 1 Mbps Examples of ISP in our country Myanmar Post and Telecommunication (http://www.mpt.net.mm/mpt/index.htm) Myanmar Post and Telecommunication offers a variety of access services from dial-up connection (low speed, low cost) like Internet Dial-Up Account or Pre-paid Access Kit to different kind of Broadband Services (high speed, additional voice options) like Broadband Wireless, ADSL or IPSTAR. Depending on your locality, your current telephone line connection, your budget and your requirements, Myanmar Post and Telecommunication can advice you which Access Service will suit you best. To adapt the Access Services even more to your personal wishes you can choose out of different user plans for each service. Recommendation By any way, we have to choose Myanmar Post and Telecommunication because it is not only the only ISP in Myanmar but also a Government Association. It aims that To rapidly build up the market by taking advantage of high capacity satellite and broadband wireless technologies To ensure network flexibility supporting multiple service type ranging from basic voice to advanced multimedia streaming. To provide complete communication service to anybody, anywhere in Myanmar by achieving 100% network converge nationwide. Task 3 Task- 3 Method for Two-way voice communication A full-duplex is data transmission in both two directions at the same time. Land-line is a good example of full-duplex communication in a telephone networks since they allow both directions of callers to speak and be heard in the same time. Examples: Telephone, Mobile Phone, etc. A half-duplex system supports the communication for two directions, but only one caller can speak at a time. If one caller transmits the signal, another caller must wait for the transmitter to stop transmitting. Antennas are of one of the type of trans-receiver that transmit and receive. Examples: walkie-talkie style two-way radio. DECT (Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications) DECT is not only used mostly in house/miniature office systems but also accessible in various PBX systems used medium and enterprise businesses. This system can be utilized for cordless phones. Voice applications are usually common nowadays. Data applications be, but have been covered by Wi-Fi. 3G cellular (WCDMA) is absolutely full with both DECT and Wi-Fi for not only voice but also data. DECT operates on different frequencies: 1880MHz, 1900MHz, 1910MHz, 1920MHz, and 1930MHz. GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication) GSM has been continually improved to offer platforms that distribute broad range of mobile services. Where the industry started voice calling, there is a powerful platform able to mobile broadband and multimedia services. Its system is now utilized for 219 countries and more than three billion people are using it. GSM is the industry standard for mobile voice and data. GSM is one of the cellular technologies that used to transmit the signal and data services. GSM activates on four different frequencies; 850 MHz, 900 MHz, 1800 MHz and 1900MHzs. This phone system uses transmission of digital and there is a maximum power output of 2W. Legal Requirements In our country, MPT (Myanmar Post and Telecommunication) supports mobile communications plan and agree to DECT (Digital Enhance Cordless Telecommunication) technology. Allocation of frequencies for two-way voice communication In the radio-telephone system, there was one central antenna tower per city, and perhaps 25 channels existing on that tower. This central antenna meant that the phone needed a powerful transmitter big enough to transmit 40 or 50 miles (about 70 km). It means that not many people will use radio telephones there just were not enough channels. The brilliance of the cellular system is the division of a city into small cells. This allows extensive frequency reuse across a city, so that millions of people can use cell phones simultaneously. There are different frequencies operate with the Federal Communication Commission use in DECT and cordless phones. 43-50MHz (base: 43.72-46.97MHz, Handset: 48.76-49.99MHz allocated in 1986 fir 10 channels, and later 25 channels, FM system) 1.7MHz (1.64MHz up to 5 channels, AM system) 900MHz (902-928 MHz, allocated in 1990) 1920-1930MHz (DECT Cordless Phone) 1.9 GHz (DECT Phone Standard) 5.8  GHz (allocated in 2003 due to crowding on the 2.4  GHz band). 2.4GHz (recently MPT allow) Licensing Requirements for two-way voice communication As Newtown Fire Department is one of the Government Association, it will not need licenses for communication. In our nation, Myanmar, the national radio communications controller Ministry of Defense control the reunion of radio frequencies. Radio frequency licenses are not usually issued free of charge and the cost of the license can be different greatly depending on country and type of usage. Operating within FCC rules and conventions is the liability of the actual end user. The FCC can fine organization up to $10,000 per day for failure to comply with the rules and conventions! Licensing is an essential piece of the conundrum, and as vital as any other detail when renting 2-way radios. operate on channels with a bandwidth of 12.5 KHz or less (narrowband) disappointment to comply 1,2031 deadline may result in annulment of license must be capable of operating in 6.25 KHz mode activate on 25 KHz channels Costs of setting up and operating system Handsets Type of Description Costs KIRK 7010 Handset Includes battery, excludes charger and power supply à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬ 250,00 KIRK 2010 Handset, EU Version Includes battery, charger, power supply, belt clip and belt clip connector à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬ 92,00 KIRK 4040 Handset Includes battery, excludes charger and power supply à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬ 274,00 Handset accessories Power Supplies Type of Description Costs Power Supply EU for KIRK 5020, 5040, 6020, 6040, 7010, 7020, 7040 handsets à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬ 15,00 Power Supply EU for KIRK 4020, 4040, 4080 handsets à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬ 10,00 Handset accessories USB Cables Type of Description Costs USB Cable for KIRK 5020, 5040, 6020, 6040, 7010, 7020, 7040 handset chargers à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬ 15,00 Handset accessories Chargers Type of Description Costs Charger for KIRK 4020, 4040 handsets à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬ 15,00 Charger for KIRK 4080 handsets à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬ 31,00 Charger for KIRK 5020, 5040 handsets à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬ 15,00 Handset accessories Safety Lines Connectors Type of Description Costs Safety Line with Connector for KIRK 4020, 4040, 4080 handsets à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬ 15,00 Safety Line Connector for KIRK 4020, 4040, 4080 handsets à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬ 2,00Licensing Type of Description Costs KWS600v3 Multi Cell License à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬ 206,00 KWS6000 User License, up to 30 users à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬ 0,00 KWS6000 User License, up to 150 users à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬ 736,00 KWS6000 User License, up to 500 users à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬ 1.656,00 Services Type of Description Costs Premier Service, One Year, KIRK 2010, 4020, 4040, 5020,5040 handsets à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬ 18,00 Premier Service, Three Years, KIRK 2010, 4020, 4040, 5020, 5040 handsets à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬ 42,00 Premier Service, One Year, KIRK 4080 handset à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬ 48,00 Premier Service, Three Years, KIRK 4080 handset à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬ 116,00 Limitation of each method Limitations of DECT By using large varies of base stations to support building, it communicate with public telecoms network. 32 Kbit/s of net bit rate, that low for data communication. With good range (up to 200 meter insides and 6 kilometre spending directional antenna outsides, data rates of approximately 500 Kbit/s. DECT emerged one time to be a better unusual to Wi-Fi. DECT activates in 1880-1900  MHz band and defines 10 channels. Each base station framework offers 12 duplex communication channels with one time fit occupying any of channels. Interference-free wireless operation to approximately 100 meters outdoors. Operates clearly in common crowded domestic radio traffic situations. For example, generally resistant to intervention from Wi-Fi systems or video dispatchers, Bluetooth equipment, baby monitors and other wireless devices. Limitations of GSM Data transfer rates will reach up to 171 kbps with General Packet Radio Service which not only splits the mobile call into packets but also allows each phone to use several channels. Technical limitations force a set of maximum cell site range of 35 km of GSM Data speeds up to 9.6 Kbit/s are available. Wavelength: 10 Meter and above, frequency range: 890-915MHz (mobile transmit) and 935-960MHz (base transmit). External Interference: There is another transmitter outside the network such as TV transmission, Railway Station frequency, and microwave links. Recommendation I want to recommend setting DECT (Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications) for two-way voice communication for the following effects: Several handsets can be use in each base station and each phone line socket. This let several cordless telephones to put in the region of house, all in action with the same telephone jack. There are a battery charger stations in the add handsets instead of a base station. The extra handsets do not need extra telephone sockets or extra transceivers. Capability to make internal (intercom) calls between handsets. Broaden series talk-time, sometimes available to 24 hours. Matrimonial cordless telephone, employing a solo base station to attach one or more handsets to the civic telecoms net, which is now accessible. Civic access, employing large numbers of base stations to offer elevate ability construction or inner-city area treatment as part of civic telecoms net. Unlike the GSM  standards, does not identify any internal facets of the preset network itself. Connectivity to the preset network which might be of a lot of separate types is made through a base station to come to an end the radio link, and a gateway to attach calls to the preset network. Task 4 Task-4 Telephone System available in our country Telephone system is one of the important parts of requirements for Fire Department. Satellite phone are required for a serious incident such as a major terrorist attack or war and then line phone and PBX system are needed. For this department, four line phones are needed at least and four satellite phones for Chief Fire Officer and three watch officer. For each firefighter, the extensions of line cordless phones are required to call form the center via two way voice communication. Line Phone A telephone line is a single-user circuit on a telephone communication system. These refers to the physical wire or other signaling medium connecting the users telephone apparatus to the telecommunications network, and usually also implies a single telephone number for billing purposes reserved for that user. There must be wires to connect with line phone. These wires connect with Local exchange via trunk lines. These wires were generally copper, although aluminum has also been used, and were carried in balanced pairs separated by about 25 cm (10) on poles above the ground, and later as twisted pair cables. Nowadays, modern lines may run underground, and may carry analog or digital signals to the exchange, or may have a device that converts the analog signal to digital for transmission on a carrier system. Moreover there are connecting with jacks RJ11 jack for the departments and homes. Private branch exchange (PBX) system PBX is also an exchange system for telephone. This exchange will serves for Fire Department to communicate easily and cheaply within the Department. It makes connections among the internal phones and then connects them to PSTN (public switched telephone network) by using trunk lines because there is incorporation with phones, fax machines, modems, and more. The extension is used to communicate with each other. The PBXs advantage was cheap for internal phone calls Now PBX became popularity and it started the services such as hunt groups, call forwarding, and extension dialing etc. The advantages when using the VOIP PBX system: Free internal calls Allow virtual incoming numbers to breaking long distance barriers and virtual call centers on anywhere. Easy and quick implementation within the existing PBX infrastructure can be gained with inexpensive Analogue Telephony Adapters that will convert signals from your existing mostly analogue phone lines into VoIP extension. Disadvantages: Dependent on internet connection damageable in the case of power outages for emergency calls, the system cannot be used a) The main equipment that are needed for Fire Department The system components for PBX station are the following. Cabinets, vaults, closets Another housings Wires for interconnection The PBXs switching network. Microcomputer that use for data processing and control. Many cards such as Logic, switching and control, power and Related equipments for PBX operation. Phone Handsets and stations called lines. Telco trunks to communicate public phone network at the outside. The operator is allowed by switchboard to control incoming call. For electricity, High performance UPS (Uninterruptible power supply) b) The features of PBX system The following are main features in PBX system. To dial other extensions To dial outside lines To make an enquiry call to another extension whist connected to an external call To transfer the external call to the extension where an enquiry call had just been made c) Cost of equipments and installation Equipments Costs Installation Costs For each Line Phones, Fire Department will pay $1,600 and PXB installation is $ 2,000. The services charges are estimating $ 800. So totally amount, four line phones and PBX station and services charges are almost $ 9,200. d) Costs of Operating for monthly No. Type of Description Prices 1 2 3 4 Phone Bill for four lines and extensions monthly PBX Operator Salary Bill services for phone company PBX equipment maintenance services $ 350 $ 200 $ 25 $ 75 Total Amount $ 650 Recommendation For Fire Department, telephone system is one of the important parts of requirements. Line phone and PBX system are needed. And then, satellite phone are required for a serious incident such as a major terrorist attack or war. For this department, four line phones are needed at least and four satellite phones for Chief Fire Officer and three watch officer. For each firefighter, the extensions of line cordless phones are required to call form the center via two way voice communication. Task 5 Task-5 If the Newtown has no electrical power or fixed telephone lines being broken, there should be an emergency using of appliance. We can use not only mobiles, walkie-talkies, and satellite phones but also generators which has the voltage of over 6600kva. Satellite Communication Satellite communication can be extremely useful for the users who are situated in vastly remote areas, and cannot access a broadband connection. Satellite receivers on the ground consist of satellite telephones, mobile reception, direct-to-home (DTH) satellite equipment, equipment in aircraft and handheld devices. Two-way voice communications are available. Data rates: 64 Kbit/s. The satellites provide a relay link to the home land earth station from the mobile terminal. Mobiles communications (GSM) Two-way voice communications are available. Can transmit 10 meter and above. Frequency range: 890-915MHz (mobile transmit) and 935-960MHz (base transmit). It is ideal for emergency services and all kinds of personal communications. Walkie-talkies Two-way voice communications are available. Hand-held transceivers can use to communicate between each other, or to vehicle-mounted or support stations. Maximum range is around 2 miles (3kilometers). Frequency range: 49 MHz band (shared with cordless phones, baby monitors, and similar devices) as well as the 900 MHz band.. Task 6 Task-6 Report for Fire Department To Mr. STER BERD November 14, 2010 (Chief Officer, Fire Department) Newtown, Green Road, No. 1111 B. From Ms. KHIN SANDAR PHYO KHINE (Network Engineer) Network Department, Red Links Company Pyay Road Report Title : Recommendation from the view of network engineers for Fire Department The Fire Department has been restructured and is opening a new headquarters building in the Newtown. I have to demonstrate an understanding of the network requirements for a new headquarters including a computer network, telephone system and two-way voice communications with staff on call in fire engines and fire department cars. Firstly, I think star topology is suitable for network design. Because star topology can be management easily and locate problem easily and then it is more expand than Bus and Ring topology. Moreover, in my opinion, I think UTP is more able to use for star topology. Due to cheap, easy installation and widely available and widely use. Secondly, I suggested about the internet connection requirements for the Fire Department. Our age became the age of internet. For Fire Department, it is needed to know the information of fire and to be contact easily. Therefore, I described Internet services, required connection speed and Internet services providers (ISPs) and its prices for requirements. And I said the methods could implement for two way voice communication. There are two kinds of it such as full duplex and half duplex. I had estimated of cost for setting up and operation system including licensing costs and equipment costs. I suggested the limitation of each system. Moreover, I explain the telephone systems available in our country for single-site organization like Fire Department. In the section, I explain the line phone, PBX for extension and satellite phone. The main equipments, features, costs and costs operation the system are explained. In this section, if there is an event of a serious incident such as a major terrorist attack or war, I suggested how can work the operation of Newtown having no electrical power and fixed telephone lines being broken. Sincerely, KHIN SANDAR PHYO KHINE KHIN SANDAR PHYO KHINE (Network Engineer)

The differing historical and sociological views of childhood

The differing historical and sociological views of childhood This essay will highlight how childrens health and the laws to protect them from being exploited by employers through the introduction of Parliamentary Acts have been effective. It has also been important to discover how taking children out of the workforce impacted on society and how it was able to support them. A further issue to be investigated will be how important it was to rescue children from living rough and trying to support themselves which was taken up by Nonconformists such as Thomas Barnardo and how the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children (NSPCC) was founded (Cunningham-2006). Another aim of this assignment is to seek out how childrens health has improved through both Government and other organisations intervention. Therefore, what Government Acts were introduced to improve the living standards of the very poor and how they have been updated to deal with the problems of the twenty first century. Another part of trying to improve the lives of all ch ildren has been focused on providing all children with an education that would link into them achieving a better standard of living and being able to make a positive contribute to society. This has been a theme of Barnardos homes since Victorian times (Rose. J 1987) and is still been seen as a necessary goal in the Governments green paper Every Childs Matters (2003) and the Early Years Foundation Stage (EYFS-2007). Therefore this will be the final area discussed in how different historical and sociological views of childhood are linked to the in present day UK. Cunningham (2006) Miller et al (2002)research states that Victorian times saw fifty per cent of recorded deaths in children aged five years old and under, the biggest killers being diarrhoea, whooping cough, measles and small pox. In 1840 it became compulsory to be vaccinated against small pox; a vaccination founded in 1790 by Edward Jenner a country doctor working in a practice in Gloucestershire. He had a chance conversation with a milk maid who had contracted cow pox and she told him that folk lore said that if a person had survived cow pox they could not contract small pox. His vaccine was an important discovery as small pox was the biggest killer in Victorian time; in todays terms it claimed as many lives as cancer or heart disease. During this period ten percent of the population suffered from the disease in rural areas, this rose to twenty percent in towns and cities who contracted the virus and subsequently there was a higher death toll due to overcrowded conditions. The lar gest group was of children, as one in three died. Jenners assertion was that the cow pox protects the human constitution from the infection of small pox (Health affairs, 24 No 3 2005) He called it the Speckled monster (www.Jenner museum.com-30/12/10). In 1853 an act was passed that made it compulsory that all infants under three months were to have the vaccination. If parents failed to have their children immunised they could be ordered to court where they would be fined, property confiscated and finally imprisoned. However, this did not deter some parents across all classes who continued to battle with the authorities until their children were fourteen years old and did not have to have the vaccination. This was because many parents feared that the conditions in which the procedure was carried out were not sterile. Their fears were well founded as there was evidence that other disease were spread e.g. erysipelas, syphilis and scrofula (Baxby, small pox vaccination). Although Jenner gave this vaccination to the world for free, the doctors charged for this service therefore many poor people, who were amongst the most vulnerable, could not afford it. If doctors had not charged for this vaccination, small pox would have been under control a lot soon than it was. (www.History Learning Site.co.uk-30/12/10). However, childrens survival rate did increase as they got older although other health factors came to the forefront. Life expectancy was reduced due to the hazard of death at work, from dust in mines, quarries, barns, mills and bakeries alongside many accidents involving using dangerous equipment. In 1842 the mines act (Maybin.J, 2003) was passed so that no child under ten years old or woman were to work underground in mines but this did not stop them from working above ground where the conditions were not much better. Many acts were also passed in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century that tried to control the hazardous, and what proved in many cases the fatal occupation of chimney sweeps or climbing boys as they were called (Cunningham, H 2006). All these previous acts proved ineffective and it took a court case in 1875 about an eleven year old boy, George Brewster who died when sweeping a flue at Fulbourn Hospital in Cambridge. The post-mortem showed that George had suf focated, his head was congested and he had large levels of black powder in his lungs and windpipe. Lord Shaftesbury then put forward another bill to parliament, this time with success. This ended what the Times newspaper called the worst public scandals of the Kingdom. (Strange, K.H, 1982) Other Acts of Parliament were also passed to try and safeguard children in cotton mills and factories over a period of time e.g. 1802 Health and Morals of Apprentices Act and the Factory Act of 1819 (Maybin,J.2003) but no provision had been ordered for these acts to be enforced. Things did not really improve until 1832 when thousands of children and adults marched to York to listen to speakers calling for a ten hour day act. The outcome of this was the 1833 Royal Commission on the Employment of Children in Factories Act (Maylin, J.2003) which said that no child under nine years of age could work in a factory and it also said that the eight hours older children spent at work had to be matched with eight hours of time spent in school until they were fourteen years old. This was supposed to be implicated by inspectors even thought there were only four for the whole of Britain. However, their work did go some way to put into place regulations that refined a system that progressed through the century. This meant that children spent equal amounts of their time in work and in school until 1918 (Cunningham-2006). Although these acts gave children more rights they were also the cause of other problems for society and the policy-makers. The poor law amendment act of 1834 (PLAA) was still in place, which was a problem for certain authorities who had to care for the children as the work they were allowed to carry out was getting more difficult to find. However, factory masters in Northern England and the Midlands needed children to work their machines in these remote sites. This led to the London authorities who were in charge of the poor houses, to take these factories needs as an opportunity to send cartloads of children to these valleys to work. One boy, Robert Blincoe tells of how 80 girls and boys were promised Roast beef and plum pudding ,but instead were forced to work 14 hours a day, were regularly beaten and given insufficient food .( Cunningham, H.2006) Thomas Barnardo became one of the most famous men in shaping childrens history in Victorian Britain. He arrived in London from Ireland in 1866.The city at the time was coping without much success with the effects of the Industrial Revolution. London was over populated had bad housing, poverty, massive unemployment, and an outbreak of cholera had just ripped through the East End of London.3,000 people had died leaving many children without family, homeless and also many were left with terrible injuries sustained from accidents in factories. Barnardo was appalled at the site of these unfortunate children and in 1867 set up a ragged school, so called because of the condition of the childrens clothes, in the East End of London for poor children to receive some basic education. A young boy Jim Jarvis from the mission showed Barnardo round the streets one cold night, children were sleeping on roofs huddled together for warmth. This sight effected Barnardo greatly and he decided to dedicate his time and efforts to helping destitute children. In 1870 Barnardo opened the first home for boys in Stepney Causeway. One evening a boy, John Somers was turned away from the home because it was full. He was found two days later dead from malnutrition and exposure. The home from that day had a sigh which read No Destitute Child Ever Refused Admission. Barnardo opened a home for girls in Barkingside which housed 1,500 girls. The aim of these homes was by the time children left they had a skill to help them make their way in the world and make a contribution to society. Boys learnt a craft or trade, girls learnt domestic skills. Barnardo believed that family life was the best for children to be bought up in. He started the first fostering scheme boarding out children to well to do families; he also started a scheme to board out babies born to unmarried mothers. The mothers worked in service nearby so they could still see their off spring. Victorians looked upon poverty, something t hey had helped to create, as shameful. They believed it came about through vice and laziness. Thomas Barnardo felt that all children, no matter what background they had come from deserved a chance and the best start in life . A philosophy that still inspires the charity today. Even though Barnardo was seen as a benevolent person there were still those who opposed him and tried to undermine his efforts. He was accused of having liaisons with a prostitute, falsifying photographs by dressing children in ragged clothes and miss using funds. All this was unfounded.(Cambridge University 1998) In 1946 The Curtis Report was published it was a national report on children deprived of a normal home life. Children were acknowledged as the nations responsibility. This report was the backbone of the Childrens Act of 1948 which placed local authorities responsible for the care of homeless and those children in need. Another Act that helped to change history and the plight of children for ever is the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children. The Reverend George Staite caused a public stir in writing a letter to the Liverpool Mercury dated 1881 in it he asked Whilst we have a society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, can we not do something to prevent cruelty to children? This statement summed up the callous way the late Victorian era still treated its children. Social attitudes of Victorian people saw a very distinct line between public and private lives. Lord Shaftesbury, who himself had campaigned successfully for the Mines Act of 1842, warned Reverend Staite against trying to help protect children using the legal system. Shaftesbury said the evils you state are enormous and indisputable, but they are of so private, internal beyond the reach of legislation. However by 1884 The London Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children was born. Lord Shaftesbury was given the post of President and the Reverend Benjamin Waugh and Reverend Edward Rudolf were joint honorary secretaries. Waugh lived in Greenwich in London, and after seeing the high levels of child cruelty in the area, wanted to draw public and government attention to the unnecessary suffering of the children. The London Society lobbed parliament hard and succeeded in changing the law through what was called Childrens Charters. These charters reduced the parental powers. The society recognised that most neglect and abuse happened at home. An annual meeting was held in 1889 and the name of the society was changed to the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children. Queen Victoria became patron and Waugh the director. In 1889 the society had thirty two branches across the UK. Inspectors were paid by raising funds. They investigated reports of abuse and neglect usually from neighbours. The public had finally got behind this Act and by 1901 the NSPPC had 250 inspectors and had had over 50,000 complaints. The NSPPC continues to uphold the traditions set in place by its founders; it acts as an independent voice of children and young people to this day.(Hendrick,H.2003) With more children now attending school scientific studies showed that were serious health issues. These studies lead to the 1906 Welfare Act .Until this Act was in place free school meals for children of poor families were suggested but optional so some local authorise did not provide them. By 1914 150,000 children were getting one good meal a day. These studies also paved the way for the 1907Act that meant that all children who attended school were entitled to a free health check. The floor in this Act was that not all children went to school and were still working more times than not to keep their family from poverty. In 1986 a National Childhood Vaccine Injury Act (NCVIA) came into effect in the UK and a similar attitude to that of the Victorians recurred with parents having concerns about links between vaccinations specifically the MMR and neurological problems. Research was headed by Dr Andrew Wakefield at the Royal Free Hospital London. The research suggested that there were links between the MMR vaccination and autism in children. It went on to also make possible links to bowel disease. Two reports in1998 and 1999 looked at the evidence from Dr Wakefields team and concluded that firstly there was no evidence to link the MMR to autism or bowel disease and secondly that there was not enough information available to cause concern about the safety of the MMR vaccination. The Department of Health did acknowledge that the final decision was with the parents or guardian of the child but they had no hesitation to advice the use of the MMR vaccine. In 2001 (WHO) the World Health Organisation came out in a report supporting the MMR vaccine (MacLeod-Brudenell 2004). Even though things have improved for children from Victorian times, things are still not ideal for our children of today. Poverty is still a major concern in the 21st century .Three times as many people are living relative poverty compared to 1979. Families are experiencing high levels of divorce, separation and traditional networks decrease(DSS 1999a).These changes have an adverse impact on childrens emotional well-being and physical health. Children who live in families experiencing relative poverty are; less likely to eat healthy, to be breastfeed for any length of time, to do well in school and more likely to have childhood accidents, to have parents that smoke and have parents that suffer from depression. After the death of an eight year old girl ,Victoria Climbie, she was tortured and killed by her aunt and partner. Lord Laming chaired a public inquiry it asked how in the 21st century this little girl could have been failed so miserably. After the Laming Report, a minister for children,. The government published the green paper Every Child Matters.(DfES 2003)The spirit of this paper is positive. This policy outlined the care that needed to be in place to protect our children including the National Service Framework(NSF) for childrens health, Sure Start for families with children under five, improve access to health food, and reduce child poverty.(Miller,L.2002) In conclusion, from Victorian days up to modern times there have been pioneers who developed vaccinations such as Edward Jenners small pox inoculation to Lord Shaftesburys law to protect the chimney sweep boys. However, any changes no matter how well intended have had some serious implications to families ability to survive poverty. Further, even though there were laws to ensure the authorities did take care of the poorest in society, reforms to protect children from working had serious implication to their ability to fulfil their role.

Carol Tavris In Groups We Shrink From Loner’s Heroics :: Sociology Groups Shring Tavris Essays

Carol Tavris' In Groups We Shrink From Loner’s Heroics â€Å"In Groups We Shrink From Loner’s Heroics† is an essay about how people in groups behave together. The author of this essay believes that when people are in groups they will do nothing to help a person in distress and that they cannot think for themselves. â€Å"In Groups We Shrink From Loner’s Heroics†, by Carol Tavris was ineffective because it used logical fallacies, overused pathos, had weak references to logos, and used inductive arguments. The author of the essay, Carol Tavris, seems to be very passionate about what she is writing. She has her doctorate in Psychology and has had her articles published in many well-known magazines. The intended audience of her essay is the general public. The purpose of this article is to inform the public that they need to stand out and use their own minds in a group setting instead of hiding in the comfort of their fellow friends and colleagues. The essay is written to be very informal. It uses a lot of connotative language as well as a subjective point of view. The author tries to use facts to support her way of thinking, and also uses some examples and descriptions. The largest downfall to the article is her use of inductive arguments. The author uses true stories and a few case studies, at the beginning of the essay, to show how some people have acted when they are with a group of people. But, the rest of her argument is based on these few studies. She tries to argue that all groups behave as these few examples, in the essay, did. These few, rare occurrences cannot be the basis for an entire argument about how groups behave. They paint too broad of a picture. The author mainly appeales to pathos. She tells a story of a woman being stabbed while her neighbors look on and also, of a man, named Rodney King, who was beaten by a few police offices while ten other officers looked on. These are good examples for her argument but, she uses these infrequent instances to try and sway her audience into thinking that they are common occurrences.

Johnny Appleseed :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Jonathan Chapman, orchardist, was possibly the only man living in Pittsburgh who should be counting his grains at the end of the day, although no other had such attractive wares to offer as he. But he could not honestly sell young apple trees that would die on the long, slow journeys into the wilderness of the Northwest Territory, so he was obliged to discourage men from buying. Nevertheless he would have as busy as a day as any, just in being a brother to wayfaring man and beast.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  His nursery and orchard lay on the main traveled road, on the blow of Grant's Hill, the very first bit of rising ground eastward of town. From that green and flowery slope the ancient woods had long since retreated, so from rude doorways below, from forest clamps above, and from boats on the flanking, bluff boarded streams Johnny’s blossoming trees were visible that morning as a drift of dawn. To the nearer view of passes-by the nurseries made and his orchard offered a moment of rest and refreshment from the feverish activities of the day. Every traveler stopped at his gate, for in a never failing spring that bubbled up, cold and clear in cobble-lined basin by the roadside, Johnny had â€Å"next water† in and out of Pittsburgh.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Johnny had lost no time in getting to work. From soil as soft as loose as an ash-heap he pulled forest seedlings and weed-stalks by hand. Tough bushed, briars, and saplings he cut down with his hatchet, grubbed out the roots; and with his hoe he destroyed the inumberable cones of annuals that, pushing through the blanket of drifted leaves, ran up every rise in flickers of pale-green fire. The ground cleared over a fraction of an acre on the well-drained slope that faced westward toward the river, he raked it free of clods, opened orderly rows of trenches, and put in and covered up his seeds.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Until his trees were in bearing he must pay his way by other services in that land of bitter toil and privation, so, in return for food and shelter, he lent a hand at whatever work was afoot. Besides, he must learn how to do everything that new-comers and Indians needed to know in order to conquer their hard circumstances. He helped raise the cabins of green buckeye logs; he took his turn at plow or scythe or ax; and beat out grain with flails on barn floors or buffalo hide.

Acquisition Payment Cycle

Acquisition and Payment Cycle According to Arens, Elder and Beasley (2006), â€Å"is considered as the third major transaction cycle. † The three major transactions in the acquisition and payment cycle include: 1. Acquisition of goods and services 2. Cash Disbursements 3. Purchase returns and allowances and purchase discounts Components such as, acquisition of raw materials, equipment, supplies, utilities, repairs and maintenance, and research and development plays a major role in the acquisition and payment cycle.The major accounts that are associated with the acquisition and payment cycle are, accounts payable, inventory, and expenses. The methodology for designing tests for phase 1 – 3 of the process includes; identification of client risks affecting other accounts, setting tolerable misstatements, assessing inherent risk for accounts, and assessing control risks for accounts. Business functions included in the acquisition and payment cycle includes: processing purch ase orders, receiving goods and services, recognizing the liability, and processing and recording cash disbursements.The incorporation of e-commerce affects the acquisition and payment cycle in many ways. Information about the products and services that Apollo Shoes offers is readily accessible on the internet. This could be a hindrance for Apollo Shoes, since the company competitors can mimic the company’s products and services. For communication purposes, Apollo Shoes use the company’s intranet to communicate information securely. This action prevents a potential leak of information to the public and competitors. Below is a detailed illustration of the audit of the acquisition and payment cycle for Apollo Shoes.TRANSACTION-RELATED AUDIT OBJECTIVE| KEY INTERNAL CONTROL| COMMON TEST OF CONTROL| COMMON SUBSTANTIVE TESTS OF TRANSACTIONS| | | | | 1. Recorded acquisitions are for goods and services received, consistent with the best interests of the client. | | | | 2. | Pu rchase requisition, purchase order, receiving report, and vendor’s invoice are attached to the voucher. Acquisitions are approved at the proper level. Computer accepts entry of purchases only from authorized vendors in the vendor master file. Documents are cancelled to prevent their reuse.Vendor’s invoices, receiving reports, purchase orders, and purchase requisitions are internally verified. | Examine documents in voucher package for existence. Examine indication of approval. Attempt to input transactions with valid and invalid vendors. Examine indication of cancellation. Examine indication of internal verification. | Review the acquisitions journal, general ledger, and accounts payable master file for large or unusual accounts. Examine underlying documents for reasonableness and authenticity. Examine vendor master file for unusual vendors.Trace inventory acquisitions to inventory master file. Examine fixed assets acquired. | TRANSACTION-RELATED AUDIT OBJECTIVE| KEY I NTERNAL CONTROL| COMMON TEST OF CONTROL| COMMON SUBSTANTIVE TESTS OF TRANSACTIONS| | | | | 3. Existing acquisition transactions are recorded. | | | | 4. | Purchase orders are prenumbered and accounted for. Receiving reports are prenumbered and accounted for. Vouchers are prenumbered and accounted for. | Account for a sequence of purchase orders. Account for a sequence of receiving reports. Account for a sequence of vouchers. Trace from a file of receiving reports to the acquisitions journal. Trace from a file of vendors’ invoices to the acquisitions journal. | 5. Recorded acquisition transactions are accurate. | Calculations and amounts are internally verified. Batch totals are compared with computer summary reports. Acquisitions are approved for prices and discounts. | Examine indication of internal verification. Examine file of batch totals for initials of data control clerk; compare totals to summary reports. Examine indication of approval. Compare recorded transactions in the acquisitions journal with the vendor’s invoice, receiving report, and other supporting documentation. Re-compute the clerical accuracy on the vendor’s invoice, including discounts and freight. | TRANSACTION-RELATED AUDIT OBJECTIVE| KEY INTERNAL CONTROL| COMMON TEST OF CONTROL| COMMON SUBSTANTIVE TESTS OF TRANSACTIONS| | | | | 6. Acquisition transactions are properly classified. | | | | 7. | An adequate chart of accounts is used. Account classifications are internally verified. | Examine procedures manual and chart of accounts.Examine indication of internal verification. | Compare classification with chart of accounts by referring to vendor’s invoices. | 8. Acquisition transactions are recorded on the correct dates. | Procedures require recording transactions as soon as possible after the goods and services have been verified. Dates are internally verified. | Examine procedures manual and observe whether unrecorded vendor’s invoices exist. Examine ind ication of internal verification. | Compare dates of receiving reports and vendor’s invoices with dates in the acquisitions journal. 9. Acquisition transactions are properly included in the accounts payable and inventory master files and are properly summarized. | Accounts payable master file contents are internally verified. Accounts payable master file or trial balance totals are compared with general ledger balances. | Examine indication of internal verification. Examine initials on general ledger accounts indicating comparison. | Test clerical accuracy by footing the journals and tracing postings to general ledger and accounts payable and inventory master files. | Results of the AuditOf the preliminary audit of Apollo Shoes acquisition and payment cycle a sample size of 120 invoices were selected. There were missing invoices related to the sample size. The invoices were properly posted to the general ledger sales and accounts receivable control accounts. Each invoice was posted to the appropriate account, no discrepancy was found. The invoices not listed to the proper accounts demonstrated no deviations to other documents, re-calculations, or comparisons. The expected credit approval notation, â€Å"No credit approval,† was not found in the related documents.When a notation of the, â€Å"Wrong quantity billed,† was posted, a description of the explanation followed. In addition, the notation of, â€Å"CM,† meant the customer contacted Apollo Shoes stating an error and credit memo was issued on the following date. This notation caused all credit memos to generate a debit to a sales return account followed by a credit to accounts receivable. In regards to the other documentation, there were no additional discrepancies to alert management regarding the acquisition and payment cycle. All findings of the 120 sample size were warranted.

Linguistics and Interjections Essay

In Western philosophy and linguistic theory, interjections—that is, words like oof, ouch, and bleah—have traditionally been understood to indicate emotional states. This article offers an account of interjections in Q’eqchi’ Maya that illuminates their social and discursive functions. In particular, it discusses the grammatical form of interjections, both in Q’eqchi’ and across languages, and characterizes the indexical objects and pragmatic functions of interjections in Q’eqchi’ in terms of a semiotic framework that may be generalized for other languages. With these grammatical forms, indexical objects, and pragmatic functions in hand, it details the various social and discursive ends that interjections serve in one Q’eqchi’ community, thereby shedding light on local values, norms, ontological classes, and social relations. In short, this article argues against interpretations of interjections that focus on internal emotional states by providing an account of their meanings in terms of situational, discursive, and social context. p a u l k o c k e l m a n is McKennan Post-Doctoral Fellow in Linguistic Anthropology in the Department of Anthropology at Dartmouth College (Hanover, N. H. 03755, U. S. A. [paul. kockelman@dartmouth. edu]). Born in 1970, he was educated at the University of California, Santa Cruz (B. A. , 1992) and the University of Chicago (M. S. , 1994; Ph. D. , 2002). His publications include â€Å"The Collection of Copal among the Q’eqchi’-Maya† (Research in Economic Anthropology 20:163–94), â€Å"Factive and Counterfactive Clitics in Q’eqchi’-Maya: Stance, Status, and Subjectivity,† in Papers from the Thirty-eighth Annual Regional Meeting of the Chicago Linguistics Society (Chicago: Linguistics Society, in press), and â€Å"The Interclausal Relations Hierarchy in Q’eqchi’ Maya† (International Journal of American Linguistics 69:25–48). The present paper was submitted 1 vi 01 and accepted 27 xii 02. 1. A longer version of this article was presented at the workshop â€Å"Semiotics: Culture in Context† at the University of Chicago in January 2001. Chris Ball, Anya Bernstein, John Lucy, and Michael Silverstein all provided very helpful commentary. This article also greatly bene? ted from suggestions made by Benjamin S. Orlove and several anonymous referees. Western philosophy and linguistic theory have traditionally considered interjections at the periphery of language and primordially related to emotion. For example, the Latin grammarian Priscian de? ned interjections as â€Å"a part of speech signifying an emotion by means of an unformed word† (Padley 1976:266). Muller (1862) ? thought that interjections were at the limit of what might be called language. Sapir (1921:6–7) said that they were â€Å"the nearest of all language sounds to instinctive utterance. † Bloom? eld (1984[1933]:177) said that they â€Å"occur under a violent stimulus,† and Jakobson (1960: 354) considered them exemplars of the â€Å"purely emotive stratum of language. † While interjections are no longer considered peripheral to linguistics and are now carefully de? ned with respect to their grammatical form, their meanings remain vague and elusive. In particular, although interjections are no longer characterized purely in terms of emotion, they are still characterized in terms of â€Å"mental states. † For example, Wierzbicka (1992:164) characterizes interjections as â€Å"[referring] to the speaker’s current mental state or mental act. † Ameka (1992a:107) says that â€Å"from a pragmatic point of view, interjections may be de?ned as a subset of items that encode speaker attitudes and communicative intentions and are contextbound,† and Montes (1999:1289) notes that many interjections â€Å"[focus] on the internal reaction of affectedness of the speaker with respect to the referent. † Philosophers have offered similar interpretations. For example, Herder thought that interjections were the human equivalent of animal sounds, being both a â€Å"language of feeling† and a â€Å"law of nature† (1966:88), and Rousseau, pursuing the origins of language, theorized that protolanguage was â€Å"entirely interjectional† (1990:71). Indeed, such philosophers have posited a historical transition from interjections to language in which the latter allows us not only to index pain and express passion but also to denote values and exercise reason (D’Atri 1995). 2 Thus interjections have been understood as a semiotic artifact of our natural origins and the most transparent index of our emotions. Such an understanding of interjections is deeply rooted in Western thought. Aristotle (1984), for example, posited a contrastive relationship between voice, proper only to humans as instantiated in language, and sound, shared by humans and animals as instantiated in cries. This contrastive relation was then compared with other analogous contrastive relations, in particular, value and pleasure/pain, polis and household, and bios (the good life, or political life proper to humans) and zoe (pure life, shared by all living things). Such a contrast is so pervasive that modern philosophers such as Agamben (1995) have devoted much of their scholarly work to the thinking out of this tradition and others built on it such as id versus ego in the Freudian paradigm. In short, the folk distinction made between interjections and language 2. D’Atri (1995:124) argues that, for Rousseau, â€Å"interjections . . . are sounds and not voices: they are passive registerings and as such do not presuppose the intervention of will, which is what characterizes human acts of speech. † 467 468 F c u r r e n t a n t h ro p o l o g y Volume 44, Number 4, August–October 2003 proper maps onto a larger set of distinctions in Western thought: emotion and cognition, animality and humanity, nature and culture, female and male, passion and reason, bare life and the good life, pain and value, private and public, and so on (see, e.g. , Lutz 1988, Strathern 1988). In this article I avoid such abstracting and dichotomizing traps by going straight to the heart of interjections: their everyday usage in actual discourse when seen in the context of local culture and grounded in a semiotic framework. I begin by characterizing the linguistic and ethnographic context in which I carried out my research and go on to relate interjections to other linguistic forms, showing how they are both similar to and distinct from other classes of words in natural languages. Next I provide and exemplify a semiotic framework, generalizable across languages, in terms of which the indexical objects and pragmatic functions of interjections can best be characterized. Then I detail the local usage of the 12 most commonly used interjections in Q’eqchi’ and show the way in which they are tied into all things cultural: values, norms, ontological classes, social relations, and so on. I conclude by discussing the relative frequency with which the various forms and functions of interjections are used. In short, I argue against interpretations of interjections that focus on emotional states by providing an account of their meanings in terms of situational, discursive, and social context. Linguistic and Ethnographic Context While I am attempting to provide as wide a theoretical account of interjections as I can, thereby providing a metalanguage for speaking about similar sign phenomena in other languages, I am also trying to capture the grammatical niceties of Q’eqchi’ Maya and the discursive and social particularities of one Q’eqchi’-speaking village in particular. Before I begin my analysis, then, I want to sketch the linguistic and ethnographic context in which I worked. Q’eqchi’ is a language in the Kichean branch of the Mayan family, spoken by some 360,000 speakers in Guatemala (in the departments of Alta Verapaz, Izabel, and Peten) and Belize (Kaufman 1974, Stewart 1980). 3 Lin? guistically, Q’eqchi’ is relatively well described: scholars such as Berinstein (1985), Sedat (1955), Stewart (1980), Stoll (1896), and Chen Cao et al. (1997) have discussed its syntax, morphology, phonology, and lexicon, and I have detailed various morphosyntactic forms (encoding grammatical categories such as mood, status, evidentiality, taxis, and inalienable possession) as they intersect with sociocultural values and contextual features and as they illuminate local modes of personhood (Kockelman 3. Typologically, Q’eqchi’ is a morphologically ergative, head-marking language. In Q’eqchi’, vowel length (signaled by doubling letters) is phonemic; /k/ and /q/ are velar and uvular plosives, respectively, and /x/ and /j/ are palato-alveolar and velar fricatives, respectively. All other phonemes have their standard IPA values. 2002, 2003a, b). This article is therefore part of a larger project in which I examine how intentional and evaluative stances are encoded in natural languages and the relations that such stances bear to local modes of subjectivity. Alta Verapaz, the original center of the Q’eqchi’-speaking people who still make up the majority of its population, has had a unusual history even by Guatemalan standards. In 1537, after the Spanish crown had failed to conquer the indigenous peoples living there, the Dominican Friar Bartolome de Las Casas was permitted to ?pacify the area through religious methods. Having succeeded, he changed the name of the area from Tezulutlan (Land of War) to Verapaz (True Peace), and the Dominicans were granted full control over the area—the state banning secular immigration, removing all military colonies, and nullifying previous land grants. In this way, for almost 300 years the area remained an isolated enclave, relatively protected by the paternalism of the church in comparison with other parts of Guatemala (King 1974, Sapper 1985). This ended abruptly in the late 1800s, however, with the advent of coffee growing, liberal reforms, and the in? ux of Europeans (Cambranes 1985, Wagner 1996). Divested of their land and forced to work on coffee plantations, the Q’eqchi’ began migrating north into the unpopulated lowland forests of the Peten ? and Belize (Adams 1965, Carter 1969, Howard 1975, Kockelman 1999, Pedroni 1991, Saa Vidal 1979, Schwartz 1990, Wilk 1991). In the past 40 years this migration has been fueled by a civil war that has ravaged the Guatemalan countryside, with the Q’eqchi’ ? eeing not just scarce resources and labor quotas but also their own nation’s soldiers—often forcibly conscripted speakers of other Mayan languages (Carmack 1988, IWGIA 1978, Wilson 1995). As a consequence, the past century has seen the Q’eqchi’ population spread from Alta Verapaz to the Peten and ? nally to Belize, Mexico, and even the ? United States. Indeed, although only the fourth largest of some 24 Mayan languages, Q’eqchi’ is thought to have the largest percentage of monolinguals, and the ethnic group is Guatemala’s fastest-growing and most geographically extensive (Kaufman 1974, Stewart 1980). The two key ethnographies of Q’eqchi’-speakers have been written by Wilk (1991) and Wilson (1995), the former treating household ecology in Belize and the latter upheavals in village life and identity at the height of the civil war in highland Guatemala during the 1980s. In addition to these monographs, there are also a number of dissertations and articles on the history (King 1974, Sapper 1985, Wagner 1996), ecology (Carter 1969, Secaira 1992, Wilson 1972), and migration (Adams 1965, Howard 1975, Pedroni 1991) of Q’eqchi’-speaking  people. The data for this article are based on almost two years of ethnographic and linguistic ? eldwork among speakers of Q’eqchi’, most of it in Ch’inahab, a village of some 80 families (around 650 people) in the municipality of San Juan Chamelco, in the department of Alta Verapaz. At an altitude of approximately 2,400 m, Ch’inahab is one of the highest villages in this area, with an annual precipitation of more than 2,000 mm. It is also one of k o c k e l m a n The Meanings of Interjections in Q’eqchi’ Maya F 469  the most remote, access to the closest road requiring a three-hour hike down a steep and muddy single-track trail. Its relatively high altitude and remote location provide the perfect setting for cloud forest, and such a cloud forest provides the perfect setting for the resplendent quetzal, being home to what is thought to be the highest density of such birds in the world. Because of the existence of the quetzal and the cloud forest in which it makes its home, Ch’inahab has been the site of a successful eco-tourism project the conditions and consequences of which are detailed in my dissertation (Kockelman 2002). While the majority of villagers in Ch’inahab are monolingual speakers of Q’eqchi’, some men who have served time in the army or worked as itinerant traders speak some Spanish. All the villagers are Catholic. Ch’inahab is divided by a mountain peak with dwellings on both of its sides and in the surrounding valleys. It takes about 45 minutes to hike across the village. At one end there is a biological station kept by the eco-tourism project and used sporadically by European ecologists, and at the other there is a Catholic church and a cemetery. In the center there is a small store, a school for primary and secondary grades, and a soccer ? eld. The surrounding landscape is cloud forest giving way to scattered house sites, agricultural parcels, pasture, and ? elds now fallow. All villagers engage in corn-based, or milpa, agriculture, but very few have enough land to ful? ll all of their subsistence needs. 4 For this reason, many women in the village are dedicated to chicken husbandry, most men in the village engage in seasonal labor on plantations (up to ?ve months a year in some cases), and many families engage in itinerant trade (women weaving baskets and textiles for the men to sell) and eco-tourism (the women hosting tourists and the men guiding them). Dwelling sites often contain a scattering of houses in which reside an older couple and their married sons, all of whom share a water source and a pasture. The individual families themselves often have two houses, a relatively traditional thatched-roof house in which the family cooks and sleeps and a relatively new house with a tin roof in which they host festivals and in which older children and ecotourists may sleep. Because of eco-tourism and the in? ux of money and strangers that it brings, there has been an increase in the construction of such tin-roofed houses, and, as will be seen, many of my examples of interjections come from such construction contexts. My data on the use of interjections among villagers in Ch’inahab comes from 14 months of ? eldwork carried out between 1998 and 2001. The data collection con4. Before 1968, what is now Ch’inahab was owned by the owner of a plantation. Q’eqchi’-speakers who lived in the village of Popobaj (located to the south of and lower than Ch’inahab) were permitted to make their milpa in this area in exchange for two weeks of labor per month on the ? nca (Secaira 1992:20). Only in 1968, when a group of villagers got together to form a land acquisition committee, were some 15 caballer? as (678 ha) of land purchased from the owner ? for 4,200 quetzals (US$4,200). This land, while legally owned by the entire community, was divided among the original 33 villagers as a function of their original contributions.  sisted in part of characterizing tokens of usage when I heard them and in part of tracking tokens of usage through recordings of naturally occurring conversations. 5 In particular, given the fact that many interjections occur in relatively nonconversational, task-engaged situations (house building, planting, playing, cooking, etc. ), trying to record them in such contexts was futile. Luckily, as will be seen, they often occur in modes of disruption (when some goal-directed action goes awry), which makes them relatively easy to notice in real-time context and their contextual regularities relatively easy to stipulate. In addition, I tape-recorded naturally occurring conversations in the households of three families once a week over several months, usually at dinnertime. 6 After I describe the forms and meanings of the interjections I will discuss the relative frequency of the various tokens collected and thereby illuminate which forms and meanings are most often used by whom. The Grammatical Form of Interjections There are four criteria by which interjections may be differentiated from other linguistic forms within a particular language and generalized as a form class across languages (Ameka 1992, Bloom?eld 1984[1933], Jespersen 1965, Wilkins 1992). First, all interjections are conventional lexical forms, or words, that can constitute utterances on their own (Wilkins 1992). They are conventional in that their sign carriers have relatively standardized and arbitrary phonological forms, and they can constitute utterances on their own because their only syntagmatic relation with other linguistic forms is parataxis—in which two forms are â€Å"united by the use of only one sentence pitch† (Bloom? eld 1984[1933]:171). They can therefore stand alone as perfectly sensible stretches of talk before and after which there is silence. Second, with few exceptions, no interjection is simultaneously a member of another word class (Ameka 1992a, Wilkins 1992). Almost all of them are what Ameka (1992a:105), following Bloom? eld (1984[1933]), calls primary interjections: â€Å"little words or non-words which . . . can constitute an utterance by themselves and do not normally enter into constructions with other word classes. † In Q’eqchi’, the main exceptions are interjections built, through lexical extension, from the primary interjection ay. In the case of ay dios, the additional 5. I also include several examples of interjection usage that occurred in the context of ethnographic interviews about topics other than interjections, for these often indicated that an ethnographic question was poorly posed or inappropriate in the local context. I also carried out extensive interviews about the meanings of interjections with native speakers (see Kockelman 2002 for an extended discussion of the relationship between form, usage, and speakers’ re? ections). 6.  Indeed, the best two accounts of interjection-like things— â€Å"response cries† in Goffman (1978) and â€Å"emblematic gestures† in Sherzer (1993)—explicitly take into account social interaction and ethnographic description. Good accounts of the discursive use of interjections are offered by De Bruyn (1998), Ehlich (1986), Gardner (1998), and Meng and Schrabback (1999). 470 F c u r r e n t a n t h ro p o l o g y Volume 44, Number 4, August–October 2003 element, dios, is a loan noun from Spanish, meaning â€Å"god. † In the case of ay dios atinyuwa’, besides the Spanish loanword there is a Q’eqchi’ expression, at-in-yuwa’ (you [are] my father). Interjections of this latter kind, which are or involve forms that belong to other word classes, will be called secondary interjections (again following Ameka and Bloom? eld). Similarly, the English secondary interjections damn and heavens may be used as both interjections and verbs or nouns. Third, with few exceptions, an interjection consists of a single morpheme and undergoes neither in? ectional nor derivational processes (Wilkins 1992). Interjections cannot be in? ectionally marked for grammatical categories such as tense or number, and they cannot be further derived into another form class such as noun or verb. Such forms are often classi? ed as a subclass of â€Å"particles† or discourse markers (see Ameka 1992a, Fraser 1999, Jespersen 1965, Schiffrin 1987, Wilkins 1992, and Zwicky 1985). In Q’eqchi’ there are three exceptions to this characterization. First, uyaluy is what I will call a reduplicative interjection, being composed, through syllabic reduplication, from the interjection uy. Second, ay dios and ay dios atinyuwa’ are what I will call extended interjections, being composed, through lexical extension, from the interjection ay. And lastly, the interjection ay may undergo further derivation into a delocutionary verb (becoming ayaynak, â€Å"to cry or yell continually,† often said of dogs howling), which may then undergo normal verbal in? ection for grammatical categories such as tense, aspect, person, and number. Lastly, although it is not a criterial feature, many of these forms are phonologically or morphologically anomalous, having features which mark them as odd or unique relative to the standard lexical forms of a language. For example, unlike most Q’eqchi’ words, in which stress falls on the last syllable (Stewart 1980), the interjection uyaluy has syllable-initial stress. Similarly, while reduplication is a common morphological process in Q’eqchi’ (Stewart 1980), the reduplicative interjection uyaluy is derived through a nonstandard morphological form. While many Q’eqchi’ words involve a glottalized alveolar stop, the interjection t’ is also implosive. 7 Whereas the Spanish loanword dios is usually phonetically assimilated in Q’eqchi’ as tiox when used as a noun, in the interjection ay dios there is no devoicing of the initial consonant of this noun (i.e. , /d/ does not become /t/) or palatization of its ? nal consonant (i. e. , /s/ does not become /x/). And the interjection sht differs from ordinary Q’eqchi’ words in using /sh/, rather than a vowel, as a syllabic (see Bloom? eld 1984[1933]:121). In short, it is clear from the number of quali? cations that interjections, like most linguistic forms, are dif? cult to characterize with necessary and suf? cient conditions (see Taylor 1995, Zwicky 1985). Nevertheless, they may simultaneously be differentiated from other form classes within a particular language and generalized as a form class across languages. 7. Often called a â€Å"dental click† (Wilkins 1992) or a â€Å"suction stop† (Jespersen 1965:90). Readers who speak some Spanish may have noticed that many Q’eqchi’ interjections look similar to Spanish interjections—ay (dios), uy, ah, eh, sht—and even to English interjections (sh[t] and t’). While I have no historical data that would attest to such a claim, given the history of sustained linguistic contact between speakers of Spanish and Q’eqchi’ via the colonial encounter and between speakers of Spanish and English this should come as no surprise. The one good account of interjections in Spanish (Montes 1999) discusses only a small range of the discursive functions of interjections and focuses on the internal state of the speaker. As I will show, however, the meanings of some of these interjections in Q’eqchi’ seem to bear a resemblance to their meanings in Spanish, as far as can be discerned from the comparative data. In this way, these â€Å"loan interjections† show that almost any linguistic form may be borrowed (see Brody 1995) with some maintenance of its meaning. The Meanings of Q’eqchi’ Interjections  Although interjections are relatively easy to characterize from the standpoint of grammatical form, there is no framework in terms of which one may order and compare their meanings—that is, the classes of objects and signs that they index (and thereby stand in a relationship of contiguity with) and the types of pragmatic functions they serve (and thereby may be used as a means to achieve). In what follows, I frame their use in terms of situational, discursive, and social context. I will begin with an extended example through which the framework will become clear. The Q’eqchi’ interjection chix indexes loathsome objects in the situational context. For example, when picking up his bowl of food from the ground, a man notices that he has set it in chicken feces. â€Å"Chix,† he says, scraping the bowl on the dirt to wipe off the feces. His wife, herself responsible for the chicken, then takes his bowl for herself and gives him a new one. Similarly, when opening the door to her house early one morning, a woman notices that the dog has vomited right outside the doorway. â€Å"Chix,† she says, and her ? ve-year-old son comes over to look. She tells him to scrape it away with a machete. Like most interjections that have indexical objects in the situational context, this interjection serves to call another’s attention to the object. 8 Relatedly, and as a function of responsibility assessment (husband 1 wife 1 child), it directs another’s attention to what must be cleaned up, avoided, etc. The interjection chix may also be transposed to index a sign denoting or characterizing a loathsome object (see Buhler 1990). In such cases of sign-based transposition, ? the interjection is in a relationship of contiguity with a 8. Montes (1999:1293) notes that most of the Spanish interjections she examined â€Å"seem to be associated with seeing. We ? nd that a large number of the interjections [ah, oh, uh, ay, oy, uy] used in the conversations examined co-occur with directives to ‘see’ or ‘look at’ or as a response to these directives. † k o c k e l m a n The Meanings of Interjections in Q’eqchi’ Maya F 471 sign that denotes or characterizes the object or event in question (rather than being in contiguity with the actual object or event, as in the usage of chix just discussed). In other words, it is as if the speaker were inhabiting the frame of the narrated event (Buhler 1990). In this way, ? the interjection chix indexes not just loathsomeness but also signs that refer to or predicate qualities of loathsome objects. Insofar as the denotatum of such a sign has the same qualities and values as the object itself, the modality of contiguity (being able to taste, touch, see, or smell the object in question) is suspended while the ontological class of the object (loathsomeness) is maintained. For example, in telling a story to a group of  men about a friend who was bitten by a poisonous spider while working on a plantation in the lowland area of Guatemala, the speaker describes the pus blisters that rose up on his friend’s arm. â€Å"Chix,† says one of the men listening. The other men laugh, and before continuing his story the speaker adds that the pus blisters took two weeks to heal. Like most interjections that undergo signbased transposition, such usage often serves as a backchannel cue, indicating that the speaker is listening but cannot or does not want to contribute to the topic at hand (Brown and Yule 1983:90–94; Duncan 1973; compare the usage of mmm or jeez in English). Lastly, the interjection chix may be transposed to index an addressee’s relation of contiguity with a loathsome object. In such cases of addressee-based transposition, the situational indexical object is transposed to a person other than the speaker. The speaker’s sign is audible (a relation of contiguity) to the addressee, who is in a relationship of contiguity with the object. In other words, it is as if the speaker were inhabiting the ad? dressee’s current corporal?  eld (see Buhler 1990, Hanks 1990), and, again, the modality of contiguity is suspended while the ontological class is maintained. For example, a mother watching her three-year-old son approach a dog that is defecating wormy stool calls out to him â€Å"Chix. † The child stops his advance and watches from a distance. In this most addressee-focused way, the sign is used by a parent to index that a child is within reach (typically tactile) of a disgusting object and serves as an imperative not to touch the object. Interjections are primarily indexical (see Peirce 1955) in that they stand for their objects by a relationship of contiguity rather than by a relationship of convention (as in the case of symbols) or similarity (as in the case of icons). 9 Although the indexical modality of interjections is emphasized in this article, the symbolic modality is always present in at least two interrelated ways. First, and trivially, the interjection itself has a standard9. If interjections were iconic, then they would be expected to resemble their objects. The problem with this, as exempli?  ed by Kryk-Kastovsky’s (1997) argument that interjections are the most iconic of all linguistic elements expressing surprise, is that one needs to know what â€Å"surprise† looks like when usually our only indication of surprise is the interjection or behavior itself. However, interjections as indexical of situational and discursive objects do in certain cases have iconic modalities of meaning (see, e. g. , the discussion of ay, ay dios, and ay dios atinyuwa’ below). ized but relatively arbitrary form that is conventionally used by members of a given linguistic community. Second, interjections conventionally stand in a relation of contiguity with particular classes of objects. These conventional classes of indexical objects are present in two ways. First, across interjections, one may characterize what semiotic class of objects is being indexed. Second, in the case of any particular interjection, one may characterize what ontological class of objects is being indexed. Besides indexing objects or signs in the immediate context, interjections have pragmatic functions: they serve as a means to achieve certain ends. For example, chix variously serves as an attentative (when nontransposed), a back-channel cue (when undergoing sign-based transposition), and an imperative (when undergoing addressee-based transposition). Both the objects indexed and the pragmatic functions served (see Silverstein 1987) are integral aspects of the meanings of interjections. Finally, interjections may index more than one object at once. In particular, they may index objects, signs, internal states, and social relations. In what follows, I will refer to these distinct types of indexical objects as situational, discursive, expressive, and social, respectively. Situational indexical objects are the objects or events in the immediate context of the speech event. Discursive indexical objects are the signs that occur in the speech event. 10 Together, situational and discursive indexical objects are the most stable co-occurrence regularities that interjections possess and therefore the only ones that are easy to tabulate. Expressive indexical objects are the intentional stances of the speaker—the putative mental states, whether construed as â€Å"cognitive† or â€Å"emotive. †11 Lastly, social indexical objects are the various social roles inhabited by the speaker or addressee (gender, ethnicity, age, etc. ) or the social relations that exist between the two (status, deference, politeness, etc. ). For example, chix may index not only a loathsome object in the situational context but a social relation (parentchild, husband-wife, raconteur–appreciative listener) and, in many cases, an internal state (â€Å"disgust†). And the interjection ay not only indexes a painful object in the situational context or an unexpected answer in the dis10. This is not quite the standard distinction between â€Å"text† and â€Å"context† (Montes 1999 and Wilkins 1992). For example, while it is tempting to put sign-based transposition into the discursive context for the purposes of schematizing the data, sign-based transpositions make sense only in terms of the qualities of the objects referred to by the sign indexed by the interjection. In contrast, an unsolicited response such as a dubitive is directed at the truth of another’s assertion rather than at any particular quality of the state of affairs predicated by that assertion. For this reason, dubitives belong to the discursive context and sign-based transpositions to the situational context. 11. Whereas interjections creatively index expressive indexical objects in that the interjection is often the only sign of the internal state in question, they presupposedly index situational and discursive indexical objects in that both interjection and indexical object are simultaneously present in context (see Silverstein 1976 for this distinction). This difference in semiotic status (presupposing/creative) maps onto a putative difference in ontological status (world/mind). 472 F c u r r e n t a n t h ro p o l o g y Volume 44, Number 4, August–October 2003 cursive context but also an internal state (pain) in the expressive context and a role in the social context (in particular, female gender). Many interjections index signs in the discursive context in that they co-occur with (or serve as) a response to an addressee’s previous utterance or a nonresponse. In the case of a response, the use of an interjection occurs after and makes sense only relative to the addressee’s previous utterance. For example, the interjection ih indexes an addressee’s previous statement and serves as a registerative, indicating that the speaker has heard and understood the statement. In the case of a nonresponse, the interjection may either elicit an addressee’s utterance (and thereby occur before it) or occur in the midst of the speaker.